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Relative Deprivation and the Causes of Terrorism
Introduction
Terrorism has long been one of the most debated subjects in political psychology and sociology. While earlier theories suggested that individuals who commit acts of terrorism suffer from personal or psychological disorders, more recent studies argue that terrorism often emerges from social and political contexts rather than mental illness. A key concept that bridges these perspectives is relative deprivation, the perception that one’s group is unfairly disadvantaged compared to others. This essay explores how scholars such as Diego Gambetta, Steffen Hertog, Sarah Brockhoff, John T. Jost, and Arie Kruglanski interpret the link between relative deprivation and terrorism, focusing particularly on how higher education can intensify feelings of frustration and inequality among would-be terrorists.
Understanding Relative Deprivation and Terrorism
The theory of relative deprivation, first introduced by sociologist Ted Gurr in 1970, suggests that individuals are more likely to engage in collective violence when they perceive a gap between what they believe they deserve and what they actually experience. Unlike absolute poverty, relative deprivation is psychological rather than material; it concerns perception and comparison. Within the context of terrorism, this means that people may turn to violent extremism not simply because they are poor, but because they feel unjustly deprived relative to others or to the promises of society.
Comparing Scholarly Perspectives
Diego Gambetta and Steffen Hertog (2007) explored the educational backgrounds of Islamist extremists in their influential study Engineers of Jihad. They found that a disproportionate number of militants held engineering or technical degrees. Gambetta and Hertog argued that this was not accidental. Highly educated individuals from developing regions often face limited economic opportunities and social mobility. When these individuals realise that their education does not translate into the status or prosperity they expected, they experience relative deprivation. This disillusionment can make them more vulnerable to ideological narratives that frame violence as a moral or political duty.
Sarah Brockhoff (2014) approached the issue from an economic and political angle. In her paper The Economics of Terrorism, she suggested that terrorism often arises in environments where educated populations experience restricted political participation. For Brockhoff, education can raise expectations for fairness and opportunity. When those expectations are frustrated, due to corruption, inequality, or discrimination, educated individuals may perceive violence as a legitimate means to challenge the system that betrayed them. Thus, education heightens awareness of deprivation, intensifying anger toward political and social elites.
John T. Jost and Arie Kruglanski contributed a psychological dimension to this debate. Jost (2006) proposed that ideologies often help individuals manage feelings of uncertainty and injustice. Kruglanski’s Significance Quest Theory (2009) built on this idea, explaining that people are driven by a fundamental need for personal significance. When individuals experience humiliation or blocked ambition, common features of relative deprivation, they may seek meaning through extremist movements that promise moral purpose and social recognition. For educated youth who feel socially excluded, terrorism can paradoxically appear as a way to reclaim status and identity.
The Role of Education in Heightening Relative Deprivation
Across these studies, formal education is not viewed as a protective factor against radicalisation but rather as a potential amplifier of dissatisfaction. Education expands awareness, political understanding, and expectations of social justice. When these expectations are unmet, frustration deepens. Gambetta and Hertog (2007) found that engineers, in particular, were more prone to radicalism because their discipline emphasises order, control, and rationality, values that are easily disrupted in unstable societies. When reality does not match these ideals, cognitive dissonance can push individuals toward extremist ideologies that claim to restore balance and purpose.
Similarly, Brockhoff’s (2014) work indicates that education increases the perception of inequality. A university graduate unable to secure employment or political representation may feel more deprived than someone with lower education but lower expectations. Jost and Kruglanski’s psychological models further reinforce this, suggesting that educated individuals are more capable of interpreting social injustice and may therefore channel their anger into ideological commitment. Education, therefore, heightens awareness and aspiration, but also deepens disappointment when systemic inequalities persist.
